Core Concepts
Actuator: Physical device converting digital signals into mechanical motion (motors, hydraulic systems, pneumatic cylinders). The “muscles” enabling robots to move and manipulate objects.
Autonomous Agent: Intelligent system that perceives its environment, makes independent decisions, and takes actions without human intervention. Adapts behavior based on real-time conditions.
Digital Twin: Virtual representation of a physical system running in real-time, synchronized with the actual machine. Enables simulation, monitoring, and optimization without physical risks.
Embodied AI: Physical AI system that learns through direct bodily experience and sensorimotor interaction with the environment. Knowledge grounded in physical interaction rather than abstract data.
Edge Computing / Edge AI: Processing data locally on the device rather than sending to cloud servers. Enables real-time responses (millisecond-level) and improved privacy.
Embodied Intelligence: Capability to understand and interact with the physical world through integrated sensors, cognitive processing, and actuators. Intelligence emerges from body-environment interaction.
Foundation Model: Large-scale AI model pre-trained on diverse data, capable of adapting to multiple specific tasks. Provides base layer of intelligence for various applications.
Grounding: Anchoring AI knowledge to physical experience. Robot learns not from abstract examples but from real interactions.
Humanoid Robot: Robot with human-like form (two arms, two legs, torso structure). Enables use of human-designed tools and spaces.
Technology Components
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Laser-based sensor creating detailed 3D maps of environments. Critical for navigation and obstacle detection in physical AI systems.
Multimodal AI: Artificial intelligence processing multiple data types simultaneously—video, audio, text, sensor data. Essential for comprehensive environmental understanding.
Morphological Computation: Principle that part of a system’s computational complexity can be transferred to its physical structure. Robot’s body shape influences how it processes information and acts.
Reality Gap: Discrepancy between robot performance in simulation versus physical world. Arises from sensor inaccuracies, physical friction differences, and environmental unpredictability.
RGB-D Sensor: Camera capturing both color information (RGB) and depth data (D) for each pixel. Provides 3D scene understanding.
Sensorimotor Coupling: Bidirectional relationship between perception and action. Perception informs action; actions reshape subsequent perception. Fundamental to embodied learning.
Sensor Fusion: Combining data from multiple sensor types (cameras, temperature, motion, audio) into unified environmental representation. Single sensors have limitations; fusion creates coherent understanding.
Transfer Learning: Applying knowledge learned in one context (typically simulation) to different context (physical robots). Accelerates development by leveraging pre-trained models.
Universal Embedding: Mathematical representation converting different sensor data types into common high-dimensional vector space. Enables unified processing of heterogeneous data.
Universal Sensor Language: Mathematical framework representing all sensor data types in single unified space. Breakthrough allowing simultaneous processing of cameras, temperature sensors, accelerometers, and dozens of other sensors.
Vision-Language-Action (VLA) Models: AI models integrating visual perception, natural language understanding, and motor control. Enable robots to see scenes, understand text instructions, and execute physical tasks.
World Models: AI’s capability to understand and predict how the physical world works. Enables robots to anticipate action consequences without trial-and-error.
System Types & Architecture
Cobot (Collaborative Robot): Robot designed to work safely alongside humans in shared space. Features built-in safety sensors and limited force application.
Real-Time Controller: Specialized microcontroller or FPGA running at 1000+ Hz. Manages precise motor control, responding to sensor feedback in milliseconds.
Robot Operating System (ROS): Open-source software framework providing common services for robot development. Simplifies integration of sensors, actuators, and AI processing.
Robotic Manipulator: Robotic arm with multiple joints and degrees of freedom. Primary tool for object manipulation in industrial settings.
Industry-Specific Terms
Predictive Maintenance: Using AI analysis of sensor data to predict equipment failure before it occurs. Reduces downtime and maintenance costs through early intervention.
Reinforcement Learning (RL): Machine learning approach where system learns through trial-and-error, receiving rewards for successful actions and penalties for failures.
Supply Chain Automation: End-to-end integration of physical AI systems managing inventory, logistics, and delivery. Companies like Amazon deploy 1+ million robots across networks.
Market & Investment Terms
Market CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate): Physical AI market growing at 38.5% annually—faster than internet boom of 1990s and mobile revolution of 2010s.
ROI (Return on Investment): Profit gained from investment. Physical AI systems typically achieve ROI within 2-3 years for appropriate applications.
Unicorn Valuation: Company valued at $1+ billion. Physical AI startups like Figure AI ($2.6B), Physical Intelligence ($2.4B), and Skild AI ($1.5B+) represent investment confidence in sector.
Safety & Regulation
Fail-Safe Design: System defaulting to safe state during any malfunction. Critical for physical AI operating around humans or expensive equipment.
AI Risk Assessment: Formal evaluation of potential failure modes, consequences, and mitigation strategies. Required for regulatory compliance (EU AI Act, US state regulations).
Cybersecurity in Physical AI: Protection against attacks that could cause physical damage. Includes encryption, multi-factor authentication, anomaly detection, and network isolation.
Emerging Concepts
Generative AI for Robotics: Application of generative models (GPT, diffusion models) to robotic task generation. Enables robots to create novel solutions rather than rigidly follow programmed sequences.
Agentic Systems: Autonomous systems capable of complex multi-step workflows without human intervention. Emerging capability expected by 2027-2028.
Human-Machine Teaming: Collaborative paradigm where humans and robots work together, each contributing complementary strengths. Emerging as standard industrial model.
Context-Based Robotics: Robots understanding context and adapting behavior based on environmental cues and social signals—moving beyond rigid task execution.
Zero-Shot Learning for Robots: Robots performing tasks never explicitly trained on, by understanding principles from other learned tasks—approaching human-like generalization.
Performance Metrics
Uptime Rate: Percentage of operational time versus total time. Modern physical AI systems achieve 95%+ uptime, often exceeding traditional automation.
Latency: Response time from sensor input to action output. Physical AI typically operates at 50-200ms perception-to-action cycles.
Degrees of Freedom (DOF): Number of independent movement axes. Humanoids typically have 40-55 DOF; human body has ~250 but controls automatically.
TFLOPS (Trillion Floating-Point Operations Per Second): Measure of computational power. NVIDIA Jetson Thor delivers 7.5 TFLOPS—enough for complex AI on-device.